Hera Diani, Jakarta – A police officer in Bekasi, West Java, attempted suicide in late August after he shot his wife to death. Media reports said one of the reasons he shot her, after a heated argument, was that she was more successful in her career as an army officer.

That is perhaps an extreme example of the resistance women can face at home, even as they battle to succeed in the workplace at traditionally masculine institutions such as the military and police.

Partnership, an Indonesian nonprofit organization for governance, said Tuesday that its recent study found policewomen are still discriminated against and marginalized at work, despite efforts at reform by the National Police.

Women make up only 3.2 percent, or 9,097 members, of the 275,294-strong national police force, according to the study.

No policewomen hold senior positions. Only 0.12 percent are deployed at National Police Headquarters in Jakarta, while 3.08 percent work at the regional headquarters. The rest are in lower offices.

"Most policewomen are also posted in stereotypical assignments, like desk jobs and administrative work," said researcher Fitriana Sidikah Rachman.

During the recruitment process, female cadets are required to be virgins, among other conditions. Once they are admitted, only a few escape desk work and are assigned to the streets as detectives, intelligence officers or traffic police.

Fitria said during focused group discussions, male police officers said many men were reluctant to have policewomen work in the field, such as in undercover operations. They said it was "too much trouble" to worry about the female officers' safety.

For a policewoman to be promoted to chief, the study found, she must get an okay from her relatives. "Before appointing a policewoman, I would call her husband and ask for his permission. I don't want to cause a family feud when she has to go on a business trip or something," said one respondent.

There are also limited opportunities for women to get advanced training and education. The research shows that while some policewomen enjoy the comfort of working safely behind a desk, they are generally highly motivated and ready to serve their country in any capacity.

More than 50 percent of the respondents said they would take any position in the field, and only 7 percent wanted to do administrative work.

Criminologist Adrianus Meliala said most people perceived policewomen as a positive element. They feel female officers improve the bad image of the institution, which is generally seen as a corrupt and militaristic.

Policewomen are seen as more honest, strict and disciplined. "Policewomen are seen as more sensitive as well, and perfect for cases where victims or suspects are women, or for doing body searches on women," he said.

With the increasing number of special desks in police stations to handle cases such as rape and domestic violence, there is an increasing demand for policewomen.

The problem with discrimination against and marginalization of policewomen, Adrianus said, starts at the policy level among high-ranking officials. "The challenge now is to push the potential of policewomen, aside from increasing their numbers," he said.