For all the almost hysterical reporting of unrest in the press, no one has yet tried to create an overall picture of what has happened on the ground. The chronology below is preliminary and based largely on Indonesian-language sources.

The preliminary chronology helps us establish some important patterns. There is a serious escalation of violent mass action. But incidents remain isolated or clustered in defined areas. Very few people have been killed or injured, all of them rioters or bystanders rather than Chinese shopkeepers. Anti-Chinese feelings are not the primary reason for the violence. Riots are largely driven by economic frustration and not by religious or ethnic ideology. Anti-government feeling is related to local issues rather than national politics. There is almost no evidence of systematic anti-Chinese persecution sponsored or even permitted by the authorities. However, while security authorities have acted with more professionalism than we have seen from them in the past, they have clearly been stretched beyond their powers at times. So much so that their failure to protect the property of the mostly Chinese shopkeepers might constitute discrimination against them by default if not by intention.

The typical pattern for a riot is of an unpredictable, spontaneous or only locally coordinated outburst against local, mostly Chinese shopkeers over rising food prices.

Some outbreaks are part of a long-standing conflict with police/ military (eg. over official protection of gambling and prostitution, or over election fraud), in which shopkeepers suffer collateral damage. Some unrest occurs in areas with a history of it (Jember). Others have seen little unrest in the past (Rembang).

An attack in one location lasts only a few hours to a couple of days, but may be repeated if opportunity presents itself or if rioters feel no justice is done (eg to detainees).

A wave of attacks may spread around an entire region as an "epidemic", either as copycat affairs or because rioters fan out from a central location (the latter suggesting coordination) (eg. Jember, Rembang, Cirebon). Others are purely local, one-off affairs.

Property damage can be serious, but rioters are often surprisingly disciplined (some reports of goods piled in the street and burned as a symbol of moral outrage rather than being taken home as loot). There are literally no reports of bodily harm against the Chinese themselves. When listed as below, it comes as somewhat of a surprise to find that the whole of Indonesia is by no means in flames. An average traveller even in remote places would have a small chance of actually running into one of these events. They remain rare, while life goes on.

Assertions of Muslim (and hence anti-Chinese) identity are often strong – slogans, grafiti – though rarely reported in the mass media.

Local military or police often act late, probably because they are ill-equipped, might get into trouble if they kill people and anyway protecting Chinese is an unpopular cause. This constitutes a serious neglect, even if it may not be intentional.

Waves of riots such as this have occurred before. The previous one occurred in the run-up to the national parliamentary elections late in 1996 and early 97. They are related to periods of economic and political stress. Politics do come into it (hence the conspiracy theories of official permission to hit Chinese), but the connection is difficult to establish. Anti-Chinese riots took severe forms in 1965 and 1945-49, and at that time, unlike now, many were killed.

Not all incidents of mass unrest are essentially anti-Chinese. During the same time period there was also a riot against Muslim migrants in Sentani (Irian Jaya) (2 January, not described here and not directly related to the economic crisis). The incidents in Bandung and Jember (both in Java) in January, and Praya (Lombok) in February, have a significant element of anti-police/ military anger. Chinese property damage was in these cases collateral damage in a wider conflict.

Rumours of conspiracies are more often heard than proven. But we have some good evidence in the current wave that certain powerful elements within the government are happy to divert attention away from its own role in the economic crisis towards Chinese scapegoats. This way of splitting the opposition or making a point within an intra-elite conflict is callous, dangerous and irresponsible (the Sofyan Wanandi story). It is a matter not of stirring up fanaticism but of taking advantage of existing tension by momentarily taking off the repressive brakes. This issue needs to be taken up in another paper (see also a forthcoming report from New York-based Human Rights Watch Asia).

Chronology

1. "Epidemics"

1.1 Jember and surrounds, East Java (12-16 January 1998) This is the first unrest directly linked to the rising food prices caused by the monetary crisis. It is an "epidemic" of sporadic violence that sweeps across the eastern tip of East Java, linked by mobs on motorcycles, that goes on for more than two weeks but peaks over these five days. There is property damage but no one is killed. Authorities make arrests but can do little to prevent the action (there are no units of the mobile police Brimob trained in riot control in the area). (A map will be useful in reading the next section!).

3 January:

Tamanan, between Jember and Bondowoso in East Java. Hundreds of people wanting to destroy a restaurant they suspect of hosting prostitutes clash with troops and police. This is one of a surprisingly large number of clashes with the authorities all over Java in recent months. No inventory has been made of these clashes, but they probably number in the dozens in the last six months. These incidents provide a backdrop of violence that sometimes spills over into action against Chinese shopkeepers.

The issues are various – perceived official protection of prostitution and gambling, perceived unfair treatment of roadside sellers or of illegal timber fellers in state forests. Police stations are often destroyed in these actions. A handful of injuries and deaths often occur.

These incidents rarely make it into the English language media. One that did was a large riot in Bandung on 5 January following mishandled official attempts to clean up roadside stalls.

In the Jember area, long-running tension between small-town Muslims and military/ police centres around two issues: land, and fraud during 1997 election. There was virtual guerrilla warfare between farmers from Jenggawah and the military over land in 1995. Jember saw a riot over election fraud committed against the Islamic party PPP in June 1997.

Some of the frustrated Tamanan actors may have been involved in the following events too.

12 January:

Kalibaru, between Banyuwangi and Jember to the west. A demonstration against food price rises by a convoy of hundreds of motorcycles tours the area for 100km ends here.

13 January:

Kalibaru. Thousands take part in a "Robin Hood" action to force stores to sell basic foodstuffs at the old prices in Kalibaru. Police persuade the Chinese shopowners it is better to sell food at old prices than to have the mob destroy their stores, so they did! Similar action is threatened in other towns in the area but shopkeepers do not feel compelled to comply. Jember area, west of Banyuwangi. On the night of 13-14 January about a dozen food and other stores are damaged by mobs. Police and military restore order the following morning. There are no injuries.

15 January:

Jember. The second biggest department store (over 700 employees) is destroyed by fire. Police later deny it was the work of vandals and blame an electrical fault.

16 January:

Balung, south of Jember. At least four other stores are plundered. The action follows the arrival of hundreds of motorcyclists from north of the town.

Jember. Shopkeepers agree to sell cooking oil and other basic foodstuffs at old prices, while others shut up shop in fear but see no action.

Bagorejo, near Banyuwangi. Late in the evening another food store is looted. Security authorities prevent further looting.

26 January:

Pakisaji, near Banyuwangi. A mob attacks a rice mill but manages only to damage some vehicles before being driven away by inhabitants at the mill.

Police say 32 are being held after the week of unrest in the Jember area. Most are low-income Madurese, long alienated from goverment in this volatile and densely populated area.

3 February:

Kasiyan village near Jember. Twenty men armed with knives destroy one store but are stopped by locals from looting goods.

1.2 Rembang and surrounds, Central and East Java (26-30 January 1998)

26 January:

The small town of Kragan near Rembang on Central Java's north coast. Fishermen worried about a 300% rise in the price of kerosene, essential for their fishing lamps, invade late at night. Several thousand rioters, mostly fishermen from the two villages of Karang Lincak and Karang Jarak, march into Kragan along the beach around midnight in at least three waves, vandalise two churches and about 15 Chinese stores. Military restore order after about 3am.

27 January:

Sarang, a little to the east of Kragan. In a similar midnight action, about a thousand rioters damage 9 stores. Food stocks are looted and taken home.

28 January:

Rembang. Rioters again damage stores and some churches here as well as in the small towns of Sluke (a daylight action), and Banjarjo (midnight action as before, this time by mobs in trucks from Bulu to the east).

29 January:

Padangan. Authorities prevent a similar riot.

Police say 21 are arrested altogether, including impoverished fishermen, unemployed and high school students. These were arrested well after the action was over.

One newspaper story reports fishermen returning goods they had looted in the heat of the moment to the store owners via the village head, saying they realised they had done wrong.

28-30 January: Similar actions then spread along the coastal road eastward as far as Tuban in East Java. In all these actions there are no deaths or injuries.

Tuban area to the east of Rembang. Thousands riot coinciding with the Islamic holiday Idul Fitri – most unusual. They are angry because the food to celebrate with has become too expensive. These rioters are not fishermen but come from the agricultural hinterland to Bulu, Tambakboyo, Jatirogo and Palang, walking or by motorcycle. They break down front doors of Chinese-owned shops, bring out the contents and then destroy them on the road. Police say the action is planned, as rioters held a mass meeting in the Tambakboyo shopping centre on 28 January.

5 February:

Police say 152 are in detention from the various riots around East Java. Over a hundred of them will be charged with property offences.

1.3 Cirebon and surrounds, West and Central Java (12-14 February 1998)

12 February:

Three days of unrest take place in towns scattered for nearly 200km along the coastal highway on Java's north coast either side of Cirebon. The incidents appear to be copycat actions spread by word of mouth along the highway, and are clustered around Jatiwangi and Pamanukan in the west, and Brebes in the east. Altogether hundreds of shops are damaged or destroyed in dozens of locations. Details remain unclear. Chinese shop keepers are the most frequent (not the only) target, but no Chinese are killed or injured. Some Chinese are given shelter at police stations. At least four rioters or bystanders die either accidentally or shot by security forces, as described below.

Jatiwangi, on the highway to Bandung to the west of Cirebon. Around 4am, several shops, including a motorcycle and apparently a bicycle shop, are burned down. Electronics and car parts shops are also damaged and a roof-tile factory is burned down. About thirty houses are also damaged. The rioters are pedicab drivers and unskilled day labourers angry about price rises of basic commodities. Sporadic rioting continues all day. Three are arrested and the riot mostly brought under control by troops brought in from Cirebon shortly before noon.

Kuningan, to the south of Cirebon. About 8pm a fire starts in the market, destroying 100 stalls (probably not owned by Chinese).

13 February:

Traffic along the narrow coastal highway, always heavy, is now particularly heavy as people return to Jakarta from the Idul Fitri holiday. But all traffic is stopped by rioting from Thursday evening 12 February.

Pamanukan, Subang regency, on the coastal highway west of Cirebon halfway to Jakarta. The worst riot of this epidemic breaks out after police shoot and kill a 28-year old man named Arta bin Tipan. He becomes the first casualty in the current wave of violence, which has seen almost no bloodshed. Police say there is no shoot-to-kill order and promise to investigate the shooting.

Pamanukan. Dozens of shops, places of worship, and doctor's surgeries are burned down in all-day rioting here as well as in Ciasem and Sukamandi to its west. Police arrest 266 and declare a night time curfew – the only one applied throughout the riot-affected area.

Meanwhile in Losari, a small town located on Java's north coastal highway east of Cirebon towards Brebes, on the border between West and East Java. After apparently some sporadic action the previous evening, trouble begins in front of the markets. During the mid-morning action about 500 angry rioters bring out basic commodities from shops onto the streets, where they are burned (not usually taken home).

After breaking for Friday prayers (sic!), a much larger groups of rioters of over 1000 return to the Losari markets and push through the military trying to control them, throwing stones at troops and at more shops. Police persuade the crowd not to set fire to shops because it might spread to houses.

Rioters spread out from Losari to neighbouring Tanjung and Bulakamba. Riot police (Brimob) fire rubber bullets and tear gas – the first time such equipment has been used (it is not widely available and most troops and police are not trained in their use). More than 60 shops are damaged by stones. Six are arrested. At least seven are taken to hospital – apparently rioters injured by security forces. Two are apparently killed by stray bullets: Tarmin (22) and Amron (24).

Just after midnight on 13 February a bus is burned and two cars damaged by young rioters, apparently near Cirebon. Traffic begins to flow again under police escort on Saturday 14 February. West Cirebon. Passengers angry they could not get public transport start throwing rocks, leading security forces to put up a barbed wire barricade to stop the action spreading. The barricade is removed after the crowd was given transport in military trucks.

14 February:

Tension and sporadic incidents continue around the area. Few details are available. Margasari, south of Tegal near Brebes. A riot breaks out mid-morning in which seven shops are damaged and their contents thrown on the street and burned.

2. Isolated incidents:

1 February:

Donggala, near Palu in Central Sulawesi. Hundreds of young rioters stone about six Chinese shops as well as street lamps late at night. They were protesting price rises in soft drinks. Local police arrest two but are forced to release them again. Military brought in from Palu bring the situation under control by 4am the next morning.

2 February:

Donggala. A similar action takes place around midnight the following night, but is more quickly brought under control. No one is arrested and there are no reports of injuries.

Students in Donggala had demonstrated against price rises on 26 January. On 11 February they also demonstrate in Palu, but are stopped by security authorities who arrested and beat up 34 students. All are later released.

2 February:

Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi. Hundreds of people damage shops, both Chinese and non-Chinese, late at night until stopped by police firing warning shots. The city remains under tight security control and shops reopen within a day or two. Ujung Pandang saw a serious riot in September last year.

2 February:

Pasuruan, on the coast southeast of Surabaya in East Java. For about 3 hours in the middle of the day a mob damage about 8 houses, a shop and a truck over the price of kerosene. The main victim, a shopkeeper named Wachid, does not seem to have been Chinese. Thirty are arrested by security authorities who intervene, all but 3 are released soon after.

7 February:

Bima, West Sumbawa. A crowd of about 100 demonstrating about rising prices before the local assembly house begins to riot after they are told they cannot all enter the assembly building. They damage shops and cars, but police deny the number of shops affected is as high as 60. Another report says 3 shops are destroyed and 20 shops and a hotel in town damaged. Fifteen arrested. Police deny there is looting. A curfew is imposed.

8 February:

Ende, Flores. At least 1000 Muslim Florinese attack Chinese-owned shops, burning down 21 shops and damaging and looting 71 others in two different parts of town. People became angry after being forced to queue for rice at the Dahlia shop the previous evening (Saturday). On Sunday morning 8 February, thousands descend on the main shopping area while shops are closed. When rioters break electrical equipment in the Dahlia shop they start a fire that spreads to neighbouring shops too. One person dies of shock watching the riot. Local troops are out of town, and the riot is not brought under control until riot police fly in from Kupang later that afternoon. A night curfew is imposed. Rioters send a delegation to the regent asking Ende officials to lower food prices. Fifty six arrested for looting. Chinese shop-owners take shelter at the local military barracks.

Towns all over Java, including Jakarta. Scattered rumours of another riot about to take place are enough to close all shops in many places, especially in the vicinity of actual riots further east.

13 February:

North Sumatran town of Padangsidempuan. Rioters angered by rising prices for vehicle spare parts damage or destroy 50 shops with stones in the evening. A big security presence prevents further trouble the next day.

14 February:

Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi. Two thousand high school and university students demonstrating against rising food prices begin stoning shops. 37 Are arrested. A delegation presented a petition to the provincial government urging firm action to control prices. Thousands of Kendari university students had clashed with police the previous December over an internal university conflict. Another demonstration and riot breaks out here on 19 February.

14 February:

Praya, Central Lombok (east of Bali). A riot breaks out about 10 am. Two are shot to death by panicky police (Sahrun, 30, and Fadli, 18), while 9 are injured, some seriously. Police arrest 8. The riot starts after hundreds of onlookers in the market area are whipped into a frenzy by a travelling medicine seller who explains the causes of the economic crisis to them. Their anger is primarily directed at security officers standing nearby, leading the latter to shoot. Security forces had been prepared for trouble for three days and there were a lot of armed officers on the streets. It is market day and the town is full of villagers from outside. Crowds also damage three shops and a bank, but damage is minor. The crowd breaks into many small groups that soon number thousands of members bent on confronting police and military. @ABRIDGED = [Gerry van Klinken, editor, Inside Indonesia magazine]